Along with the Strait of Malacca and the Singapore Straits, the Strait of Hormuz is arguably the most important bottleneck in international navigation because a large part of the global oil production needs to be shipped through this passage, which is only a few kilometers wide. In the context of the dispute about Iran’s nuclear program and new sanctions, Iran has threatened to close the Strait of Hormuz for international shipping, effectively cutting off many Western countries from important oil imports. (...) In this article, the legality of such action as well as the legality of the mere threat to close the Strait of Hormuz are investigated. In addition to the International Law of the Sea, general rules of international law and the international law of armed conflict are taken into consideration. Particular emphasis is put on the sovereignty of other states, which is infringed upon by such threats on the part of the Iranian leadership. First, the question has to be answered whether a passage through these waters would be transit passage through a Strait or normal passage through the coastal state’s territorial sea. The authors of the article conclude that the regime of transit passage applies qua lex specialis, as far as the part of the Strait of Hormuz, which is included in Iran’s territorial waters, is concerned. The next step is to ask the question whether preventing such a passage as well as threatening to prevent such a passage are permissible for Iran. In this context, the potential abuse of otherwise permitted traffic separation schemes is highlighted. Traffic separation schemes are of particular importance in narrow but highly frequented bodies of water, such as the Strait of Hormuz. In addition, the contemporary Iranian state practice has received some attention. One issue to be considered in more detail is the requirement that foreign warships receive authorization from the coastal state prior to entry into the territorial sea. This approach might be incompatible with the right to innocent passage under both the Law of the Sea Convention and customary international law, as there is no clear legal source, which provides for this requirement. Finally, the authors look at the question of the legality of the mere threat to close the Strait of Hormuz as opposed to actually closing the Strait. The sovereignty of other states may be affected to such an extent that such threats already amount to a violation of international law. In light of the historic precedents during the Iran-Iraq War, these threats should not be dismissed lightly. Iran would be well advised to refrain from such rhetoric. (shrink)

This study described the relationships between academic class and student moral sensitivity and reasoning and between curriculum design components for ethics education and student moral sensitivity and reasoning. The data were collected from freshman (n = 506) and senior students (n = 440) in eight baccalaureate nursing programs in South Korea by survey; the survey consisted of the Korean Moral Sensitivity Questionnaire and the Korean Defining Issues Test. The results showed that moral sensitivity scores in patient-oriented care and conflict were (...) higher in senior students than in freshman students. Furthermore, more hours of ethics content were associated with higher principled thinking scores of senior students. Nursing education in South Korea may have an impact on developing student moral sensitivity. Planned ethics content in nursing curricula is necessary to improve moral sensitivity and moral reasoning of students. (shrink)

Arendarcikas, Birute Since the Second Vatican Council and the historic embrace of Paul VI and the Patriarch of Constantinople Athenagoras I in January 1964, the pope and the hierarchs of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches have, after centuries of mutual separation, embraced each other once again as sister churches. On many occasions the pope and the hierarchs of the respective churches have drawn attention to the loving veneration of, and special devotion to, Mary, the Mother of God, which (...) both churches hold in common and which unite them as sister churches. In his apostolic exhortation Marialis Cultus on devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary, Paul VI affirms that 'in venerating with particular love the glorious Theotokos and in acclaiming her as the "Hope of Christians", Catholics unite themselves with their brethren of the Orthodox Churches, in which devotion to the Blessed Virgin finds its expression in a beautiful lyricism and in solid doctrine'. Similarly, in a shared homily with Pope John Paul II, delivered during Vespers in the Basilica of St Mary Major in Rome on 5 December 1987, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Dimitrios I said: Of all the entire Christian world our two sister Churches have maintained throughout the centuries unextinguished the flame of devotion to the most venerated person of the all holy Mother of God, dedicating to her the finest and most inspired artistic works of song, architecture and painting, turning to her sweetest figure the hearts' desires and the hopes of the devout people of every epoch. (shrink)

Financial statements are the main source of information showing the performance of an enterprise and its financial state. They are need for business management, analysis, internal and external audit, owners and state, investors, society. The set of financial statements is prepared by summarizing the company's financial year data. To prepare accountability, data is pre-accumulated and grouped in accounting records, synthetic and analytical accounting registers according to general principles: continuity, periodicity, permanence, prudence, monetary measure, accumulation, neutrality, relevance of content, importance of (...) information. These accounting principles are followed in the EU countries. According to A. Ivanauskienė, an annual stocktaking must be carried out before the annual financial statements are drawn up [3]. Accounting policy part includes accounting principles and a brief description of accounting methods and rules that are used by the entity in accounting and financial reporting. [2]. Accounting policies are general accounting principles, accounting methods, and rules intended for accounting management, formation and submission of financial accountability" - the definition is provided by A. Ivanauskienė [3]. For more information on accounting policies is written 6 BAS - the explanatory note of the accounting policy part should state that 'financial statements are prepared in accordance with business accounting standards. Other legal acts that have been used for accounting management and financial reporting purposes [1] are also included. At the end of the company's financial year, we have to prepare not only financial statements, but also to analyze it properly. Because only by submitting an annual analysis of financial statements we will be able to evaluate the company's performance and position. We will be able to determine whether the company's performance is profitable, whether by putting together and discussing all the reports, there is a risk for the company's future plans. Problem and Relevance - it is very important that the financial accountability reports would be prepared correctly and would perform their intended purpose. Accurate accumulation and systematization of accounting information allows to account correctly assets, capital, income and expenses. Otherwise, false information will result in distorted analysis results and its users will make wrong decisions. The aim of the work is to analyze the content of financial statements, principles of formation and use of data. Research object - financial accountability. Research objectives: 1. To analyze the essence and importance of financial accountability, to provide a systematic description of financial accountability. 2. To provide a procedure for regulating accountability and how to allocate it. 3. To set requirements for financial reporting. 4. To prove the importance of financial reporting with respect to companies. Research methods - analysis of scientific literature, including the comparison of theoretical statements, methods of generalization, logical and graphical representation. Conclusions: Financial statements should reflect fair information about the financial position and performance of the entity, as well as provide necessary information to internal and external users and disclose relevant information about significant events occurring during the reporting period. Preparation of financial statements is regulated by: Law on Accounting of the Republic of Lithuania, Law on Financial Accountability of the Republic of Lithuania, Consolidated Financial Accountability Compilation of the Republic of Lithuania, International Business Accounting Standards, National Business Accounting Standards, Accounting Policies shaped in the company. The data presented in the annual financial statements shall be prepared in accordance with the general accounting principles. The information received in the reports must be compared to the previous reporting periods and to the performance of other companies. The data obtained are needed for economic analysis, audit, planning of the company performance and forecasting. (shrink)

The article discusses the issue of realisation of the principles of legitimate expectations, legal certainty and legal security in the specific area of administrative activity – detailed territorial planning process. During this long and complex process, it is very important to ensure the protection of personal constitutional rights and guarantee the security of legitimate expectations, legal certainty and other essential principles. The article analyses the circumstances conditioning violation of the principles of legitimate expectations, legal security and legal certainty and provides (...) suggestions on the improvement of legal framework in order to avoid these violations. (shrink)

The article analyzes the system of legal regulation of the higher education in Lithuania with the purpose to determine the boundaries of exercising the discretionary powers of the executive institutions in the field of higher education. The article is made of two parts. Discretionary powers of the executive institutions in legislative field are discussed in the first part. The power of legislative discretion is described as a right to set the legal regulation by way of a subject who is granted (...) such discretionary power. Problems may arise in cases when the law granting such discretionary powers is too abstract or declarative. The main criteria in determining the boundaries of exercise of discretionary powers are the provisions of Constitution and laws, and constitutional law principles. The system of delegation of legislative powers in the field of regulation of the higher education in Lithuania is analyzed in the second part of the article. The permanent changes in administrative legal regulation of higher education and studies determined by a vast amount of subjects issuing post-legislative legal acts in this field, as well as rather tedious legal regulation which, in turn, calls for frequent changes in legal acts, raises doubts regarding a possibility to implement main principles of the studies, such as freedom of creation and scientific research or academic freedom and autonomy. (shrink)

For the last several decades, ensuring human rights and national security have remained an important goal and a condition for existence of every state. The interests of national security often presuppose the need to narrow some natural rights, such as, for example, the right to privacy, the right to secrecy of communication, etc. Traditional concept of security is related to ensuring national security. According to the traditional concept of security, the state is considered the main object of security; therefore, the (...) states mainly focus on external threats. It is stated that the most important thing is to protect the state from external aggression, ensure protection of state borders and institutions. Protection of human rights is ensured simultaneously. It is, however, observed that a secure state does not necessarily mean that the citizens of the state are secure. Security of a person is under threat due to limitations imposed on human rights while seeking to ensure national security. (shrink)

The process of territorial planning is complicated, because there are different and even opposite interest of persons related with particular territory. Administrative legal regulation of territorial planning in Lithuania underlies emergence of a legal conflict, namely the administrative litigation. Investigation of the administrative dispute applying the pre-litigation procedure allows the parties thereof to save both money and time. This article presents the problematic aspects of the pre-trial investigation of the administrative disputes arising in the area of territorial planning. The article (...) is composed of an introduction, three parts and conclusions. In the first part the characteristics of the disputes arising in the area of territorial planning, the preconditions of origin, and the demand for the pre-trial investigation thereof are analyzed. Legal regulation of pre-trial investigation out-of-court of the disputes arising in the area of territorial planning is revealed in the second part. In the third part key provisions of the reform of the pre-trial investigation out-of-court of the disputes arising in the area of territorial planning are discussed. (shrink)

The importance of the right to education reaches far beyond education itself. The right to education is recognized, promoted and protected at all levels— from local to global. The concept of each human right constitutes a dual perception—human rights are personified and there are particular duty-bearers, most often the states, which have certain obligations to preserve and protect those rights. This article summarizes governmental obligations, foreseen in international and regional legal human rights’ instruments, corresponding to the right to education in (...) its entirety. The conceptual framework for the content and scope of the right to education is established by different human rights institutions and judicial bodies and implicates the concept of quantitative and qualitative measures, expressed by four guidelines—availability, accessibility, acceptability, adaptability. (shrink)

The need to examine the efficiency of state financing of universities is becoming more important for a number of reasons. The growth in the social demand for higher education, the globalization and internationalization of the higher education system, the recognition of the need to improve the quality of studies coincide with the financing aspects of activities of higher education institutions. The object of the research is to analyze the financing models and state funding methods of the higher education system and (...) to disclose the advantages as well as dysfunctions of each conception. This paper examines the mechanisms through which governments allocate resources to higher education in order to establish effective means to transfer these subsidies to institutions. (shrink)

The article analyzes preconditions of realization of the right to religious education in Lithuania during the period of compulsory education. The article consists of two parts. The essence of the freedom of thought, religion and conscience and their relation to religious education is discussed in the first part. The second part of the article analyses national legal framework related to compulsory education in the light of freedom of thought, religion and conscience. The states are required to ensure education of children (...) according to religious convictions of their parents and needs of the children themselves. The Lithuanian legal regulation, however, allows certain ambiguities as to how effectively may the right to religious education be realised. (shrink)

Information is a very important factor in various fields of activity of the contemporary people. In any economic activities as well as in the activities of the economic entity the information is used for decision-making. The information may be economic, legal, scientific and otherwise, but in order to manage economic processes the most important is economic information. The greatest part of this information is provided by accounting both financial and management. In every company as in a separate accounting unit, a (...) lot of economic transactions and events occur over the year, constantly recording the movement of money, the amount of revenue and costs. Periodically, in the activities of enterprises, institutions or organizations it is necessary to summarise all the available economic information and calculate performance results, to show the remains of assets, equity and liabilities. Financial statements of the company in the market economy conditions is the main source of information about the assets, liabilities, capital, profits and cash flows. Accumulated and grouped financial information of companies, institutions, or organizations in the form of financial statements periodically, but not less often than at the end of the financial year, is is presented to all users who are interested in it, since the annual financial accounts must be provided by all companies, enterprises or organisations with legal status. Many Lithuanian authors, dealing with financial statements, note that the current forms used for financial statements do not provide sufficient information to meet the users‘ needs in constant competitive conditions and, therefore, there are a lot of discussions how these statements could be improved. When analysing financial accountability, problematic aspects of assessment of financial statements elements are faced. Both Lithuanian and foreign authors pay little attention to the assessment analysis of financial statement elements, because for businesses both in Lithuania and abroad it is rather complicated to assess properly the elements of the financial statements by assessment methods available in the literature in such a way that they would reflect the state of the company truly and correctly. This time, however, the figures in the financial statements is one of the most important sources of information for economic state assessment of companies, enterprises or organisations and for business management solutions. Accounting professionals and other users, when analysing the financial statements, may form opinions and draw conclusions about the profitability of the core business of the analysed entity, the ability to cover its short-term and long-term liabilities, as well as about long-term and short-term assets, product manufacturing and sales situation and changes during the reporting period, and relying on these data decide on the reliability of the company, development and investment opportunities. (shrink)

This paper is an update of the documents we have concerning the Acts of the Christian martyrs, focused on three main aspects: 1) the kind of acts we know of and their classification from the point of view of their historic value; 2) the versions or editions of the texts that are most accepted by scholars; 3) the relevance of the different parts that make up these documents in order to discern the original text from passages that were rewritten or (...) underwent later variations. In this way, the article offers an exhaustive list of the documents for use in researching Christian martyrs in the Roman period. (shrink)

The first attempt to bring together the historians of science from the Baltic States took place in Riga in 1958. Prof. Pauls Stradiņš initiated and organised a joint meeting for historians of science from Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania under the supervision of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. A program for future joint activities was developed, and the tradition of joint conferences—the Baltic Conference on History of Science —in each country followed. In 1991, the Baltic Association of the History (...) and Philosophy of Science, uniting historians and philosophers of science of independent Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, took over organising the BCHS. The article aims to present an overview of the published results of the conference, which is partly based on the annotated bibliography of the conference. The authors analyse the subject, dissemination and tradition of the BCHS, and discuss the role of academic institutions in organising the events. Since the overview was inspired by a decision to gather a complete set of books of conference abstracts, it also resulted in recommendations for conference organisers. Between 1958 and 2019, twenty-nine conferences were organised and 2,880 papers were presented. The next conference will take place in Finland in 2022. The main ideas of the article were presented at the 26th International Congress on History and Philosophy of Science in Prague in 2021. (shrink)

In recent literature, panpsychism has been defended by appeal to two main arguments: first, an argument from philosophy of mind, according to which panpsychism is the only view which successfully integrates consciousness into the physical world (Strawson 2006; Chalmers 2013); second, an argument from categorical properties, according to which panpsychism offers the only positive account of the categorical or intrinsic nature of physical reality (Seager 2006; Adams 2007; Alter and Nagasawa 2012). Historically, however, panpsychism has also been defended by appeal (...) to a third argument based on considerations about the nature and observability of causation. This argument has not been much discussed in recent times. Here is a concise version from William James: "… the concrete perceptual flux, taken just as it comes, offers in our own activity-situations perfectly comprehensible instances of causal agency … If we took these experiences as the type of what actual causation is, we should have to ascribe to cases of causation outside of our life, to physical cases also, an inwardly experiential nature. In other words, we should have to espouse a so-called “pan-psychic” philosophy" (James 1911: 218). James here suggests that we have direct experience of causation in our own agency. He thereby directly contradicts David Hume, who famously denied that we have any experience of causation. James goes on to claim that if this experience is representative of causation in general, it follows that all causation is mental, and that panpsychism is true. This kind of argument for panpsychism can be called the argument from (experience of) causation. This chapter offers, first, a history of this argument and arguments closely related to it, and second, an analysis of the argument – is it valid, are its premises in any way defensible, and how does it relate to the other, more popular arguments for panpsychism from philosophy of mind and categorical properties? (shrink)

Entities pursuing their objectives focus on the smooth and efficient operations and processes, and optimum use of funds. For this purpose, an internal control system is being implemented in enterprises and organizations, one of the components among these systems is internal audit. The main objective of the internal auditor is to provide an independent and impartial assessment of the entity's performance and provide insights on how to improve its operations. Although internal audit is only part of the internal control system (...) of the entity, it has to assess the proper functioning of the system itself, propose measures to make internal control more efficient. The state of internal control largely depends on the work of the internal auditor. Scientific problem. The scientific literature emphasizes the need to create an appropriate system of internal control of the entity, but for many supervisors and internal auditors internal audit and internal control still associate with the role of the inspector. A well-functioning internal control system reduces the work involved in the audit and risks that allow the internal auditor to devote more time to developing the entity's development prospects. Particular attention in the process of operational efficiency must be given to employees performing the functions entrusted to them, including them in the process of internal control improvement. Not only managers but also all employees need to deepen knowledge of the importance of internal audit and the necessity of reaching the goals set by the entity, not only managers but also all employees. The aim of the article: to analyze peculiarities of theoretical internal audit and control. In order to achieve the tasks: to analyze the concept of internal audit and control, and its variation; to research internal audit objectives. The object of the research: internal audit and control in a company. The methodology of the research: the systemic analysis of scientific literature and legislation. (shrink)

Ibn al-ʻArabī, 1165-1240; views on freedom; Sufism; Islamic philosophy.

Succession of states regains its importance in current geopolitical situation as now we are witnessing a possible new wave of state succession: South Sudan has been accepted to the United Nations, Kosovo’s independence has been recognized by many countries, Palestine has gained new status in the United Nations, etc. This would lead to the necessity to resolve questions related to succession of states, which might, among other subjects, include issues of diplomatic protection which was subject to international legislation – International (...) Law Commission has prepared the Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection. However, General Assembly is still not ready to adopt this document as a convention, therefore the term to consider possible ways of handling the issues on diplomatic protection within the UN was extended till 2013. Draft articles give the definition of diplomatic protection, indicating the main features of this institute. However, sometimes the difference among the institutes being called the same name with diplomatic protection might cause misunderstandings when analyzing the issue both in general and in the context of succession of states. One of the main prerequisites for diplomatic protection recognized in the jurisprudence of International Court of Justice is the Mavrommatis rule, which indicates that when protecting the citizen’s rights, state in reality is asserting its own right. This rule has been cited in other cases, however, especially now, when individuals already have quite a number of measures to protect their individual rights independently from the actions of state, it has been acknowledged that the rule is fictitious. This recognition, reflected in the Draft Articles and indicated in the commentary of it, is most welcomed as it helps to resolve questions related to the succession of states. There is a need to understand that there is a difference between international obligations under which state is entitled to diplomatic protection and those under which it really asserts its own rights, despite the fact that the latter might also be related to the rights of individuals. This difference is also important in the context of the succession of states, as the consequences arising out of the breach of these obligations in the context of state succession might differ. The last but not least issue addressed in the article is the question of the succession to treaties, which indicate individual rights, but does not form a customary international law. The question is whether the successor state is entitled to diplomatic protection on behalf of its succeeded citizen in a case of a breach of international treaty which was not subject to succession by the successor state. Taking everything into account, there are issues which are not addressed in the Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection. Herewith there are issues of diplomatic protection which should be addressed in a case of state succession. Nonetheless, it should be reminded that diplomatic protection is always subject to the decision of the state itself, it is just important that newly created states understand and know the possibility to invoke international responsibility of the third state using the means of diplomatic protection, even if the injury was made to its national before the moment of state succession. (shrink)

Greek text, english translation and commentary on the surviving fragments of Empedocles (fragments as known in 1981, does not include more recent finds).

Contrary to Vaesen's argument that humans are unique with respect to nine cognitive capacities essential for tool use, we suggest that although such cognitive processes contribute to variation in tool use, it does not follow that these capacities arenecessaryfor tool use, nor that tool use shaped cognition per se, given the available data in cognitive neuroscience and behavioral biology.

The concept of the receptive field, first articulated by Hartline, is central to visual neuroscience. The receptive field of a neuron encompasses the spatial and temporal properties of stimuli that activate the neuron, and, as Hubel and Wiesel conceived of it, a neuron’s receptive field is static. This makes it possible to build models of neural circuits and to build up more complex receptive fields out of simpler ones. Recent work in visual neurophysiology is providing evidence that the classical receptive (...) field is an inaccurate picture. The receptive field seems to be a dynamic feature of the neuron. In particular, the receptive field of neurons in V1 seems to be dependent on the properties of the stimulus. In this paper, we review the history of the concept of the receptive field and the problematic data. We then consider a number of possible theoretical responses to these data. (shrink)

There are obvious benefits to be gained from the study of logic: heightened ability to express ideas clearly and concisely, increased skill in defining one's terms, enlarged capacity to formulate arguments rigorously and to analyze them critically. But the greatest benefit, in my judgment, is the recognition that reason can be applied in every aspect of human affairs.

What are conspiracy theories? And what, if anything, is epistemically wrong with them? I offer an account on which conspiracy theories are a unique way of holding a belief in a conspiracy. Specifically, I take conspiracy theories to be self-insulating beliefs in conspiracies. On this view, conspiracy theorists have their conspiratorial beliefs in a way that is immune to revision by counter-evidence. I argue that conspiracy theories are always irrational. Although conspiracy theories involve an expectation to encounter some seemingly disconfirming (...) evidence (allegedly planted by the conspirators), resistance to all counter- evidence cannot be justified on these grounds. (shrink)

This paper is devoted to the study of some subvarieties of the variety Qof Q-Heyting algebras, that is, Heyting algebras with a quantifier. In particular, a deeper investigation is carried out in the variety Q 3 of three-valued Q-Heyting algebras to show that the structure of the lattice of subvarieties of Qis far more complicated that the lattice of subvarieties of Heyting algebras. We determine the simple and subdirectly irreducible algebras in Q 3 and we construct the lattice of subvarieties (...) (Q 3 ) of the variety Q 3. (shrink)

I propose to consider the question, "Can machines think?" This should begin with definitions of the meaning of the terms "machine" and "think." The definitions might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the normal use of the words, but this attitude is dangerous, If the meaning of the words "machine" and "think" are to be found by examining how they are commonly used it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the meaning and the answer to (...) the question, "Can machines think?" is to be sought in a statistical survey such as a Gallup poll. But this is absurd. Instead of attempting such a definition I shall replace the question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words. The new form of the problem can be described in terms of a game which we call the 'imitation game." It is played with three people, a man (A), a woman (B), and an interrogator (C) who may be of either sex. The interrogator stays in a room apart front the other two. The object of the game for the interrogator is to determine which of the other two is the man and which is the woman. He knows them by labels X and Y, and at the end of the game he says either "X is A and Y is B" or "X is B and Y is A." The interrogator is allowed to put questions to A and B. We now ask the question, "What will happen when a machine takes the part of A in this game?" Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman? These questions replace our original, "Can machines think?". (shrink)

This collection addresses a post-WWII shift in the hierarchy of scientific explanations, where the highest goal moves from reductionism towards some ...

Traditional Chinese commentators rightly see that understanding Zhuangzi's way with words is the presupposition for understanding Zhuangzi at all. They are not sure, however, if Zhuangzi's words are super-effective or pure nonsense. I consider Zhuangzi's experience with language, and then turn to Heidegger's word of being to see if it may throw light on Zhuangzi's way of saying. I argue that a conversation between Heidegger and Zhuangzi on language is possible, but only by expanding Heidegger's notion of Gestell and through (...) a destruction of the dominant Confucian discourse that obscures Zhuangzi's way of saying. (shrink)

Several variants of Lewis's Best System Account of Lawhood have been proposed that avoid its commitment to perfectly natural properties. There has been little discussion of the relative merits of these proposals, and little discussion of how one might extend this strategy to provide natural property-free variants of Lewis's other accounts, such as his accounts of duplication, intrinsicality, causation, counterfactuals, and reference. We undertake these projects in this paper. We begin by providing a framework for classifying and assessing the variants (...) of the Best System Account. We then evaluate these proposals, and identify the most promising candidates. We go on to develop a proposal for systematically modifying Lewis's other accounts so that they, too, avoid commitment to perfectly natural properties. We conclude by briefly considering a different route one might take to developing natural property-free versions of Lewis's other accounts, drawing on recent work by Williams. (shrink)

For the theorists of crisis, the revolutionary state comes into existence through violence, and due to its inability to provide an authoritative katechon (restrainer) against internal and external violence, it perpetuates violence until it self-destructs. Writing during extreme economic depression and growing social and political violence, the crisis theorists––Joseph de Maistre, Juan Donoso Cortés, and Carl Schmitt––each sought to blame the chaos of their time upon the Janus-faced postrevolutionary ideals of liberalism and socialism by urging a return to pre-revolutionary moral (...) and religious values. They are united by three counterrevolutionary principles, all of which are purported to remedy revolutionary violence: traditional constitutional fidelity, the philosophy of the decision, and opposition to bourgeois liberalism. This essay is followed by the first complete English translation and publication of Donoso’s letter of October 24, 1851, which contains Donoso’s only reference to the “discussing class,” a political entity later popularized by Schmitt in his 1922 work Political Theology. (shrink)

This article examines three candidate cases of non-causal explanation in computational neuroscience. I argue that there are instances of efficient coding explanation that are strongly analogous to examples of non-causal explanation in physics and biology, as presented by Batterman, Woodward, and Lange. By integrating Lange’s and Woodward’s accounts, I offer a new way to elucidate the distinction between causal and non-causal explanation, and to address concerns about the explanatory sufficiency of non-mechanistic models in neuroscience. I also use this framework to (...) shed light on the dispute over the interpretation of dynamical models of the brain. _1_ Introduction _1.1_ Efficient coding explanation in computational neuroscience _1.2_ Defining non-causal explanation _2_ Case I: Hybrid Computation _3_ Case II: The Gabor Model Revisited _4_ Case III: A Dynamical Model of Prefrontal Cortex _4.1_ A new explanation of context-dependent computation _4.2_ Causal or non-causal? _5_ Causal and Non-causal: Does the Difference Matter? (shrink)